இந்தக் கட்டுரையில், TNPSC குரூப் 1, குரூப் 2, குரூப் 2A, குரூப் 4 மாநிலப் போட்டித் தேர்வுகளான TNUSRB, TRB, TET, TNEB போன்றவற்றுக்கான முறைகள் இலவசக் குறிப்புகளைப் பெறுவீர்கள்.தேர்வுக்கு தயாராவோர் இங்குள்ள பாடக்குறிப்புகளை படித்து பயன்பெற வாழ்த்துகிறோம்.
Delhi Sultanates
Advent of Arabs and Truks:
Islam
The religion Islam was born at Mecca in Arabia.
Its founder was Prophet Muhammad.
But his teachings made the wealthy people of Mecca his enemies.
Therefore, he migrated to Medina in 622 A.D., which was the starting point of the
Muslim calendar and the Muslim era called hijra.
After eight years he returned to Mecca with his followers. He died in 632 A.D.
The followers of Muhammad set up an empire called the Caliphate.
The Umayyads and the Abbasids were called the caliphs.
They expanded their rule by conquests and spread their religion, Islam.
The Arab Conquest of Sind (712 A.D.):
The Arab governor of Iraq, Hajjaj Bin Yusuf, under the pretext of acting against the
pirates, sent two military expeditions against Dahar, the ruler of Sind, one by land and
the other by sea.
Both were defeated and commanders were killed.
Hajjaj then sent, with the Caliph’s permission, a full-fledged army, with 6000 strong
cavalry and a large camel corps carrying all war requirements under the command of his
son-in-law, a 17-year-old Muhammad Bin Qasim.
Muhammad Bin Qasim
In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sind.
He was the commander of the Umayyad kingdom.
The predecessors of Dahir, the Brahmin rulers of Sind, had usurped power from the
earlier Buddhist ruling dynasty of Sind and, with the patronage of Dahir Brahmins, had
occupied all higher positions.
So the city was called as Brahmanabad.
Muhammad Bin Qasim marched onto the fortress of Brahmanabad where Dahar was
stationed with a huge army.
Dahar’s wazir (Prime minister) betrayed him, which was followed by the desertion of a
section of his forces.
This led to discontentment and therefore Dahar lacked popular support.
In this context it was easy for Muhammad Qasim to capture Brahmanabad.
Qasim defeated Dahar, the ruler of Sind and killed him in a well-contested Battle at
Rohri.
His capital Aror was captured.
Qasim thereupon ravaged and plundered Debal (Port) for three days.
Qasim called on the people of Sind to surrender, promising full protection to their faith.
He sent the customary one-fifth of the plunder to the Caliph and divided the rest among
his soldiers.
The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects).
There was no interference in the lives and property of the people.
Soon, Qasim was recalled by the Caliph.
However, Sind continued to be under the Arabs.
End of Qasim:
Sulaiman became the next Caliph after Walid.
He was an enemy of Iraq ruler Hajij.
So, he deposed Qasim, son-in-law of Hajij and sent him to Mesapatomia.
There he was tortured and killed.
Effect of Qasims attack:
The Arab conquest of Sind has been described as a “triumph without results” because it
touched but a fringe of the country, which, after Qasim’s expedition had a respite from
invasions for about three centuries.
The Muslims could not expand their authority further into India due to the presence of
the powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.
When caliphate started to decline, Sind was recaptured by Hindu rulers.
Although the conquest of Sind did not lead to further conquests immediately, it had
resulted in the diffusion of Indian culture abroad.
Many Arab travelers visited Sind.
The Indian numerals in the Arabic form went to Europe through them.
Since Sind was a part of the Arab empire, the inflow of Indian knowledge was great.
By the end of the ninth century A.D., the Abbasid Caliphate declined.
The Turkish governors established independent kingdoms and the Caliph became only a
ritual authority.
One of the major kingdoms that emerged out of the broken Arab empire was the
Samanid kingdom which also splintered, leading to several independent states.
In 963 Alaptigin, a Turkic slave who had served Samanids as their governor in Khurasan,
seized the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan and established an independent
kingdom.
His successor and son-in-law Sabuktigin wanted to conquer India from the north-west.
He succeeded in capturing Peshawar from Jayapala.
Sabuktigin initiated the process of southward expansion into the Indian sub-continent.
He defeated the Shahi ruler of Afghanistan, Jayapal, and conferred the governorship of
the province on Mahmud, his eldest son.
Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997-1030).
When Sabuktagin died in 997, Mahmud was in Khurasan.
Ismail, the younger son of Sabuktagin had been named his successor.
But defeating Ismail in a battle, Mahmud, aged twenty-seven, ascended the throne and
the Caliph acknowledged his accession by sending him a robe of investiture and by
conferring on him the title Yamini-ud- Daulah (‘Right-hand of the Empire’).
Mahmud’s Military Raids
Mahmud ruled for thirty-two years.
During this period, he conducted as many as seventeen military campaigns into India.
He targeted Hindu temples that were depositories of vast treasures.
Though the motive was to loot, there was also a military advantage in demolishing
temples and smashing idols.
The Ghaznavid soldiers viewed it also as a demonstration of the invincible power of their
god.
The religious passions of Mahmud’s army expressed itself in slaughter of ‘infidels’ and
plunder and destruction of their places of worship.
However, there is little evidence of any large scale conversion of people to their faith.
In 1011, he raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi.
In 1018, Mahmud plundered the holy city of Mathura and also attacked Kanauj.
The ruler of Kanauj, Rajyapala abandoned Kanauj and later died.
Mahmud returned via Kalinjar with fabulous riches.
His next important raid was against Gujarat.
In 1024, Mahmud marched from Multan across Rajaputana, defeated the Solanki King
Bhimadeva I, plundered Anhilwad and sacked the famous temple of Somanatha.
Then, he returned through the Sind desert.
This was his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in 1030 A.D.
Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud. He was the author of Shah
Namah.
Alberuni stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an account on
India.
The Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding the gates of India against foreign invaders.
Mahmud destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers became defenceless.
The inclusion of Punjab and Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the subsequent
Muslim conquests of India comparatively easy.
The history of the Ghaznavid dynasty after the death of Mahmud is a story of endless
clashes over succession between brothers, cousins, and uncles.
Muhammad Ghori
The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of
Mahmud.
Taking advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad
popularly known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under their control.
Having made his position strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his
attention to India. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer India and extend
his empire in this direction.
In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan and occupied whole of Sind in his
subsequent expeditions.
Through the 1180s and 1190s Ghori established garrisons in the modern provinces of
Punjab, Sind, and Haryana.
In 1175 Ghori headed for the city of Multan which he seized from its Ismaili ruler.
The fort of Uchch fell without a fight.
The Chalukyas of Gujarat inflicted a crushing defeat on Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu
(1179)
After this defeat Ghori changed the course of his expedition, consolidating his position
in Sind and the Punjab.
In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from Khusru Malik and annexed it to his
dominions.
Muhammad Ghori invested in territories he seized.
The Sultan’s military commanders in north India were drawn from his elite military class.
Specially trained in warfare and governance these slaves were different from agrestic
(related to land\field labour) and domestic slaves.
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