இந்தக் கட்டுரையில், TNPSC குரூப் 1, குரூப் 2, குரூப் 2A, குரூப் 4 மாநிலப் போட்டித் தேர்வுகளான TNUSRB, TRB, TET, TNEB போன்றவற்றுக்கான முறைகள் இலவசக் குறிப்புகளைப் பெறுவீர்கள்.தேர்வுக்கு தயாராவோர் இங்குள்ள பாடக்குறிப்புகளை படித்து பயன்பெற வாழ்த்துகிறோம்.
Portugese and Orissa
He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his
ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
The Portuguese governor Albuquerque sent an agent to offer aid to Krishna Deva in his
fight against the Bahmanis in return for Vijayanagar support against the Zamorin of
Calicut.
He also promised to supply Arab and Persian horses only to Vijayanagar.
The second Portuguese ambassador to Krishna Devaraya renewed the governor’s
request to erect a fort at Bhatkal and succeeded in his mission. This was after
Albuquerque had attacked and captured Goa in 1510.
There are several inscriptions graphically describing his seizure of many forts like
Udayagiri, under the control of Gajapati, during the course of this eastern expedition.
In the year 1515, Krishnadevaraya had chosen Potnuru to erected the pillar to recount
his conquests.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the
Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana.
Prataparudra negotiated for peace and offered to marry off his daughter to him.
Accepting the offer, Krishnadevaraya returned the territory he had conquered from
Prataparudra.
Talaikotta battle
At Krishnadevaraya‘s death, his younger brother Achyutadevaraya became king.
Ramaraya, the son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya wanted to dominate the affairs by
crowning the infant as king.
Achyutadevaraya was however supported by Chellappa (Saluva Nayak), the greatest
Nayak of the day who controlled a major part of the Tamil area.
Soon after, however, Chellapa became a rebel himself and Achyutadevaraya had to take
a big expedition to the south to subdue him.
After his death in 1542, his nephew Sadasivaraya succeeded him and ruled for about
thirty years (1542–70).
The real power lay in the hands of Ramaraya, who got support from many of his close
kinsmen (of Aravidu clan) by appointing them as Nayak of many strategic localities.
He entered into a commercial treaty with the Portuguese whereby the supply of horses
to the Bijapur ruler was stopped.
He fought with the Bijapur ruler and after some time, he allied with the Bijapur ruler
against Golkonda and Ahmadnagar. This divide and rule policy provoked much enmity
against Vijayanagar.
Forgetting their mutual quarrels, the Deccan states, joined hands to wage the last great
battle against their common enemy.
The battle was fought at Talikota or Rakshasi-Tangadi in January 1565 in which
Ramaraya, in spite of his old age, personally commanded the forces along with his
cousins and brothers.
Ramaraya was imprisoned and executed immediately. The victorious Bahmani armies
entered the Vijayanagar city for the first time in their history, and ransacked it for
several months laying it waste.
This battle is generally considered the signal for the end of Vijayanagar
Tirumala, brother of Ramaraya, declared himself king in 1570, starting the Aravidu, that
is the fourth dynasty.
Central Administration
The King was the ultimate authority in the kingdom. He was also the supreme
commander of the army.
He was assisted by several high-rank officers called as the council of ministers headed by
a Prime Minister.
The Chief Minister was known as the Mahapradhani.
The Council meetings were held at Venkatavilasa Mandapam to discuss very important
issues.
The oral order of king was recorded by Rayasani.
Provincial administration
The Vijayanagara kingdom was divided into different administrative units called
mandalams or rajyas(provinces)
nadus (districts)
sthalas (sub-districts)
gramas (villages).
The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
He led a number of lower-ranking officers, like Dalavay (commander), Vassal (guard of
the palace), Rayasam (secretary/accountant), Adaippam (personal attendant), and
Kariya-karta (executive agents).
Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.
The administration of the village looked after by Gauda (village headman).
Land revenue was considered as the Chief source of income and the taxes collected
were called as Kadamai, Magamai, Kannikai, Kattayam, Kanam, Varam, Bodham, Vari,
Pattam, Irai, Kattanam.
Land Revenue
The Lands were Carefully surveyed, and the taxes were collected based on production.
Land revenue was generally fixed as one-sixth of the produce.
The expenditure of the state was divided into four parts such as
charities and the personal expenditure of the King
maintenance of horses
military conquests
security of the empire
These were mentioned in the book Amuktamalyada.
The Revenue department was called Athavanam.
Local & Judicial administration
The Village affairs was administered by 12 members called Ayagars and the tax free
lands were known as Manyams.
The King enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was
the highest court of appeal.
The petty offences like violation of caste rules and rules of trade were investigated by
village courts, panchayats and guild organisations.
Dharmasasthra consists of the local customs that were to be followed.
In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to
elephants were followed.
Military administration
The Vijayanagar army was well-organised and efficient.
It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
High-breed horses such as Arabian & Persian horses were procured from Portuguese
and foreign traders.
The Military Department was maintained by Kandacharya.
The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars.
Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Literature
Krishnadevaraya patronised art and literature.
He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
Eight eminent luminaries in literature known as astadiggajas adorned his court.
Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works – Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
Allasani Peddanna was the greatest, and he was called as Andhrakavita Pitamaga.
His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
Some important Books and and its Authors
Nandi Timmana – Parijatha Paharanam
Madayya – Rajasekharchaaritam
Dhurajati – Kalahasti Mahatyam
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra – Saaramatasara Sangraham
Pingali Surana – Prabhavari Pradyumma
Tenali Ramakrishnan – Panduranga Mahamatyam
Ramraja Bhusan – Kavyalankara
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes in the
Vijayanagar society.
Brahmins
Kshatriyas
Vaisyas
Sudras
Foreign travellers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social
life in the city of Vijayanagar.
Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for clothing.
Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people.
Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and a large number of their household
servants.
Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements.
The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But
other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. But all kings were tolerant towards other
religions.
Borbosa referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone.
Muslims were employed in the administration and they were allowed to build mosques
and worship.
According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employed in royal palaces as
dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers.
The attachment of dancing girls to temples was in practice.
Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families.
Sati was honoured and Nuniz gives a description about it.
Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored the famous work Maduravijayam.
Hannamma and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this period.
Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi system.
Economic Condition
According to the accounts of the foreign travellers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of
the wealthiest parts of the world at that time.
Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.
The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation
facilities.
New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra.
Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals.
There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds.
Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period.
Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district.
Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade.
The chief gold coin was the Varaha but weights and measures varied from place to
place.
Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity.
There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore.
Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and
with Burma, Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished.
Cultural Contributions
The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the
temple premises.
The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features.
The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some
big temples.
The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or
the city of Vijayanagar.
Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style.
The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar.
They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples of
casting of metal images.
Music and dancing were also patronised by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the
regions.
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