இந்தக் கட்டுரையில், TNPSC குரூப் 1, குரூப் 2, குரூப் 2A, குரூப் 4 மாநிலப் போட்டித் தேர்வுகளான TNUSRB, TRB, TET, TNEB போன்றவற்றுக்கான முறைகள் இலவசக் குறிப்புகளைப் பெறுவீர்கள்.தேர்வுக்கு தயாராவோர் இங்குள்ள பாடக்குறிப்புகளை படித்து பயன்பெற வாழ்த்துகிறோம்.
South Indian History
Introduction and Evolution
Evolution of Society in South India
In the Deccan region, encompassing major parts of Present-day Andhra, Karnataka and
Maharashtra, the Satavahanas established a powerful kingdom in the first century BCE.
In the South, the three family ruling houses – the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas
were their contemporaries, ruling the fertile parts of Tamizhagam. But the Tamil rulers
started two centuries earlier as they figure in Ashoka’s inscriptions of the third century
BCE.
Their period witnesses many sources that include archaeological sources, numismatics
sources, epigraphic sources, and literary sources.
Sources
Archaeological Sources
The megalithic burial sites of the early historic period.
Excavated material from ancient sites, including ports, capital towns, with architectural
remains, such as in Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Alangulam, and Uraiyur.
Buddhist sites with stupas and chaityas located in Andhra and Karnataka regions.
(Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, etc.)
Numismatic Sources
Coins of pre-Satavahana chieftains and of the Satavahanas from Andhra- Karnataka
region.
The coins issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and the chieftains of the Sangam Age.
Roman copper, silver and gold coins.
Epigraphic Sources
The Ashokan inscriptions, written in Prakrit, found in Andhra-Karnataka regions.
The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in the caves of Tamil Nadu and Kerala such as in
Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.
The Satavahana inscriptions and other Buddhist inscriptions of the Andhra region.
Short inscriptions found on pottery and rings and stones in Tamil Nadu and some sites
outside India, like in Berenike, and Quseir al Qadhim (Egypt).
Literary Sources
Tamil texts including the Sangam and post-Sangam literature.
The Arthasastra, the treatise on economy and statecraft authored by Kautilya.
The Puranas which mention the genealogy of the Andhras/Satavahanas.
Buddhist Chronicles such as Mahavamsa.
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text composed by the Satavahana king Hala.
Classical Tamil Literature
The Classical Sangam corpus consists of Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the
earliest extant Tamil grammatical text dealing not only with poetry but also the society
and culture of the times.
The eight anthologies (Ettuthogai), ten idylls (Paththuppattu), the five epics belong to
post-Sangam times.
The Pathinen kilkanakku, and melkanakku works describe a different social and cultural
set-up.
Foreign Notices
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient Greek text of the first century CE.
Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, first century CE.
Ptolemy’s Geography, second century CE.
Vienna Papyrus, an ancient Greek, second century CE.
A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table.
South India during Mauryan times
The Ashokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE) present for the first time a picture of the political
condition in South India.
Rock Edict II lists the Tamil ruling houses Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satiyaputra
as neighbour ruler.
The Mauryan Empire at that time included northern parts of Karnataka and Andhra,
while the Tamil kingdoms were treated as independent neighbours.
After the decline of the Mauryas, the Satavahanas emerged.
South India under the Satavahanas
The Satavahanas emerged in the first century BCE in the Deccan region. They ruled over
parts of Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest of the Satavahana kings.
He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued the coins of Nahapana with his own
royal insignia.
The inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri at Nashik mentions him as the conqueror
of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas.
He is also said to have performed the prestigious Vedic asvamedha sacrifice.
Vasishthiputra Pulumayi, the successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, expanded the
frontiers of the Satavahana Empire. The coins issued by him are found scattered in many
parts of South India.
Yagnashri Satakarni was another famous ruler who issued coins with a ship motif,
indicating the importance of the overseas trade during his reign.
King Hala is credited with the writing of Gaha Sattasai, a collection of 700 love poems.
Written in Maharashtri Prakrit dialect, it has themes similar to those found in the Tamil
Sangam poetry.
Offering land grants was an important development of the Satavahana times. The
beneficiaries of these grants were mostly Buddhists and Brahmins.
The Naneghat inscription refers to tax exemptions given to the lands granted to
Buddhist monks.
These land donations created a group of people who did not cultivate but owned land.
This led to the development of land-based social hierarchy and divisions in society.
It was also a period of brisk Indo- Roman trade.
The Satavahana Empire declined around the 3 rd century CE and was replaced by the
Ikshvakus, followed by the Pallavas, in Andhra and the Kadambas in Northern Karnataka.
Sangam Age
The Sangam texts are generally dated to between third century BC (BCE) and the third
century AD (CE).
According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in
ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam.
These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
The first Sangam, held at then Madurai, was organised by Kaysina Vazhuthi.
No literary work of this Sangam was available and it was attended by Gods and
legendary sages.
The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had
perished except Tolkappiyam.
The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a
large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.
These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the
Sangam Age.
Political History
Though the three Tamil ruling families were known to Ashoka in the third century BCE
itself, some individual names are known only from the Sangam poems of the first
century and later.
Known as ‘Muvendar’, ‘the three crowned kings’ – the Cheras, the Cholas and the
Pandyas controlled major agrarian territories, trade routes and towns.
But the Satiyaputra (same as Athiyaman) found in the Ashokan inscription along with
the above three houses is a Velir chief in the Sangam poems.
Cheras
The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of
Tamil Nadu.
Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under
their control.
Vanji is identified with Karur, while some scholars identify it with Tiruvanchaikkalam in
Kerala.
Their emblem is the Bow and Arrow.
They had the palmyra flowers as their garland.
The Patitruppathu speaks of the eight Chera kings, their territory and fame.
The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention Chera kings of three generations.
Cheral Irumporai issued coins in his name. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan and
Chenguttuvan are some of the prominent Chera kings.
The great North Indian expedition of Chenguttuvan mentioned in Silappathikaram is
however not mentioned in the Sangam poems.
Cholas
The Cholas controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu.
The core area of their rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam.
Their capital was Uraiyur (near Thiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an
alternative royal residence and chief port town.
Tiger was their emblem. Kaviripattinam attracted merchants from various regions of the
Indian Ocean.
Pattinappalai, composed by the poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, offers elaborate
descriptions of the bustling trading activity here during the rule of Karikalan.
Karikalan, son of Ilanjetchenni, is portrayed as the greatest Chola of the Sangam age.
Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of his reign.
Karikalan’s foremost military achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and the
Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni.
Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which nine enemy
chieftains submitted before him.
He is credited with converting the forests into habitable regions and developing
agriculture by providing irrigation through the embankment of the Kaveri and building
reservoirs.
Another king, Perunarkilli is said to have performed the Vedic sacrifice Rajasuyam.
Pandyas
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai.
Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of the Thamiraparani with the
Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving.
Fish was the emblem of the Pandyas.
Their coins have an elephant on one side and a stylised image of fish on the other.
According to tradition, they patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the
compilation of the Sangam poems.
The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription mentions a Pandya king by the name of
Nedunchezhiyan of the second century BCE.
Maduraikanchi refers to Mudukudumi–Peruvazhuthi and another Nedunchezhiyan, the
victor of Talaiyalanganam, and a few other Pandya kings.
Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi is referred to in the Velvikkudi copper plates of the eighth–
century for donating land to Brahmans.
Nedunchezhiyan is praised for his victory over the combined army of the Chera, the
Chola and five Velir chieftains (Thithiyan, Elini, Erumaiyuran, Irungovenman, and
Porunan) at Talayalanganam.
He is also given credit for capturing Milalai and Mutthuru (Pudukottai district) two
important places from a Vel chief.
He is praised as the Lord of Korkai.
Minor Chieftains
The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam period.
Among them, Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were popular for their
philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.
Therefore, they were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal.
Although they were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they were
powerful and popular in their respective regions.
Sangam Society
Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands.
According to the thinai concept, Tamilagam was divided into five landscapes or eco-
regions, Ainthinai namely — Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as
Gods for worship.
Land Divisions
Tolkappiyam mentions five types of land.
Kurinji – Hill and areas surrounding it, The Chief deity – Murugan , The Chief occupation
– hunting and honey collection.
Mullai – Pastoral forest, The Chief deity – Mayon (Vishnu) , The Chief occupation –
cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
Marudam – Cultivable land, The Chief deity – Indira , The Chief occupation – agriculture.
Neydal – Coastal area, The Chief deity – Varunan , The Chief occupation – fishing and
salt manufacturing.
Palai – Desert land, The Chief deity – Kotravai , The Chief occupation – robbery.
Tamil Polity
In a way this thinai classification is said to reflect the uneven socio-economic
developments of the different localities.
Three levels of rulers are found–1) Kizhar, 2) Velir, 3) Vendar.
Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu. They
were the chiefs of tribal communities living in specific areas.
The Vendar were kings controlling larger, fertile territories.
The Velir, who were many in number, controlled the territories of varied geographical
nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were in between the Muvendar’s fertile
territories.
The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or
Avai.
The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils.
They were ministers (Amaichar), priests (Anthanar), military commanders (Senapathi),
envoys (Thuthar) and spies (Orrar).
The empire is divided into Mandalam, Nadu and Orr.
Land revenue was the chief source of the state’s income while custom duty was also
imposed on foreign trade.
The Pattinappalai refers to the customs officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.
Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent
robbery and smuggling.
Society and Economy
In the Sangam Age, the wars waged by the Vendar were involved in expanding their
territorial base by annexing the enemy’s territories.
Women were actively engaged in economic production and there were a significant
number of women poets in the Sangam Age.
Craft production was common in the major urban centres such as Arikamedu, Uraiyur,
Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala.
Maduraikanchi speaks about day markets as well as night markets selling several craft
goods.
The names of persons mentioned in inscriptions on pottery reveal the presence of non-
Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in certain craft centres and towns.
Manimegalai refers to Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths and Yavana
carpenters working in co-operation with Tamil craftsmen.
Salt merchants called umanar, travelled in bullock carts along with their families for
trade activities. Chattu referred to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
Roman gold and silver coins have been found in many hoards in the Coimbatore region
and many other places in south India.
Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.
Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country.
Tamil sayings represent the uniqueness of each ancient Tamil kingdom
Chola Nadu – sorudaithu (rice in abundance).
Pandya Nadu – muthudaithu (pearls in abundance).
Chera Nadu – vezhamudaithu (elephants in abundance).
Thondai Nadu – Saandrorudaithu (scholars in abundance).
Age of Kalabhras – Post Sangam Period
About Third century [CE] Sangam period began to decline.
The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly between
300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of Kalabhras in the history of Tamizhagam.
As the three traditional kingdoms disappeared in this interval due to the occupation of
their territory by a warlike group called the Kalabhras, this period was called an
interregnum or ‘dark age’ by earlier historians.
This was the time when the non-orthodox religions Jainism and Buddhism became more
influential.
Many Tamil works were written during this period.
They were referred to as Kalvar, Kalavar, Kalabhras and so on.
The literary sources for this period include Tamil Navalar Charithai, Yaperunkalam and
Periapuranam.
SeevakaChinthamani and Kundalakesi were also written during this period.
Pandian Kadungon liberated Southern Tamilnadu.
The introduction of Sanskrit and Prakrit languages had resulted in the development of a
new script called Vattezhuththu.
Simhavishnu defeated Kalabras and established the Pallava empire
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