இந்தக் கட்டுரையில், TNPSC குரூப் 1, குரூப் 2, குரூப் 2A, குரூப் 4 மாநிலப் போட்டித் தேர்வுகளான TNUSRB, TRB, TET, TNEB போன்றவற்றுக்கான முறைகள் இலவசக் குறிப்புகளைப் பெறுவீர்கள்.தேர்வுக்கு தயாராவோர் இங்குள்ள பாடக்குறிப்புகளை படித்து பயன்பெற வாழ்த்துகிறோம்.
The Mughal Empire
Introduction & Arrival of Babur
India had been invaded from the west/ north-west several times over the centuries,
beginning with Alexander.
Various parts of north India had been ruled by foreigners like the Indo-Greeks, Sakas,
Kushans and Afghans.
The Mughals, descended from the Mongol Chengiz Khan and the Turk Timur, founded
an empire in India which lasted for more than three centuries.
The Delhi sultanate was not so strong. Ibrahim Lodi, the last sultan of Delhi had lost
control over his nobles.
Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established in 1526 after Babur
defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat.
Six major rulers of this dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb, known as the “Great Mughals”, left their mark on Indian history.
The empire formally ended a century and a half later, when power passed to the British
crown after the great revolt of 1857.
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (1526 -1530)
The race for political supremacy in Central Asia amongst the Uzbeks (Turkic ethnic
group), the Safavids (the members of the dynasty that ruled Iran patronising Shia Islam)
and the Ottomans (Turkish people practicing Sunni Islam) forced Zahiruddin Muhammad
Babur, the ruler of Samarkand, to seek his career prospects elsewhere.
Babur, a boy of eleven, inherited the throne of Samarkand (now a city in Uzbekistan)
from his father.
As a Timurid, Babur had an eye on Punjab, part of which had been Timur’s possession.
Between 1519 and 1524, when he invaded Bhera, Sialkot and Lahore, he showed his
definite intention to conquer Hindustan, where the political scene also favoured his
adventure.
After conquering Kabul and Ghazni, Babur crossed the Indus to India and established a
small kingdom.
1 st Battle of Panipat – 1526 April 21
Babur received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodi, a principal opponent of Ibrahim Lodi,
and Rana Sangha, ruler of Mewar and the chief of Rajput Confederacy, with a plea to
invade India.
When Babur marched to India, he first defeated the forces of Daulat Khan Lodi at Lahore
as he had gone back on his promise to help Babur.
Babur then turned towards the Lodi-governed Punjab. After several invasions, he
defeated the formidable forces of Ibrahim Lodi with a numerically inferior army at
Panipat.
Babur won this battle with the help of strategic positioning of his forces and the
effective use of artillery.
Babur’s victory provided hopes for him to settle in India permanently. Babur had
conquered Delhi and Agra, but he still had to suppress the Rajputs and the Afghans.
Battle of Khanwa – 1527
Artillery is an army unit that uses large cannon-like weapons, transportable and usually
operated by more than one person
Gun powder was used in guns and cannons from the mid-fourteenth century onwards.
In India, we have no instances of artillery being used in war before Babur.
Babur decided to take on Rana Sanga of Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had a strong
influence over Rajasthan and Malwa.
The ferocious march of Rana Sanga with a formidable force strengthened by Afghan
Muslims, Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, and Hasan Khan Mewati, ruler of
Mewat, confronted the forces of Babur.
With strategic positioning of forces and effective use of artillery, Babur defeated Rana
Sanga’s forces.
This victory was followed by the capture of forts at Gwalior and Dholpur which further
strengthened Babur’s position.
Chanderi & Ghagra Battle
The next significant battle that ensured Babur’s supremacy over the Malwa region was
fought against Medini Rai at Chanderi.
Following this victory, Babur turned towards the growing rebellious activities of
Afghans.
Ghagra was the last battle Babar fought against the Afghans. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi’s
brother Mahmud Lodi and Sultan Nusrat Shah, son-in-law of Ibrahim Lodi, conspired
against Babur.
Realising the danger, Babur marched against them. In the battle that ensued along the
banks of Ghagra, a tributary of Ganges, Babur defeated the Afghans.
But he died on his way from Agra to Lahore in 1530.
Babur’s Estimate
Babur, the founder of Mughal Empire, was a scholar of Persian and Arabic.
Babur’s memoirs Tuziuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) is considered a world classic.
Babur found nothing admirable either in the Afghans who ruled India for some time or
in the majority of the people they governed.
What Hindustan possessed, in Babur’s view, is described as follows:
‘The chief excellence of Hindustan is that it is a large country and has abundance of gold
and silver. Another convenience of Hindustan is that the workmen of every profession
and trade are innumerable and without end.’
His description of India is delightful.
He was also a naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India.
Babur’s dominions were now secure from Kandahar to the borders of Bengal.
Humayun (1530 -1540, 1555-1556)
Humayan, the eldest son of Babur ascended the throne in A.D 1530 after the death of
his father.
There is a story about Babur’s death. His son Humayun was ill and Babur in his love for
him is said to have prayed, offering his own life if his son got well. Humayun recovered.
Humayun, a cultured and learned person, was not a soldier like his father.
He was faced with the problems of a weak financial system and the predatory Afghans.
Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, also posed a great threat.
Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal. Humayun divided the empire
among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his part.
Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar. Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and
Hindal.
The growth of Afghan power in the regions around Bihar and Uttar Pradesh under the
leadership of Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) made Humayun to initiate action.
Defeating the Afghans at Daurah in 1532 Humayun besieged the powerful fort of
Chunar.
After a period of four months, Humayun, believing the word of Sher Shah that he would
be loyal to the Mughals, withdrew the siege. This turned out to be a great mistake.
Humayun spent the succeeding years of his life in constructing a new city in Delhi,
Dinpanah, while his enemies were strengthening themselves.
Realising the ensuing danger from Bahadur Shah who had annexed Rajasthan and
instigated and provided refuge to all anti-Mughal elements, Humayan marched against
him.
He captured Gujarat and Malwa and left them under the control of his brother Askari.
When Humayun was deeply engrossed in the affairs of Bahadur Shah, Sher Khan had
strengthened himself by defeating the ruler of Bengal. Sher Khan captured the fort of
Rohtas and Bengal.
Humayun Vs Sher Shah
After capturing Chunar Humayun marched to Bengal to confront Sher Khan.
When Humayun reached Gaur or Gauda he received information on the rebellion of
Hindal, his younger brother.
Humayun proceeded to Agra to quell the rebellion. Sher Khan who had been quiet all
this time started attacking the army of Humayun.
Battle of Chausa (1539)
This battle was won by Sher Khan due to his superior political and military skills.
Humayun suffered a defeat in which 7000 Mughal nobles and soldiers were killed and
Humayun himself had to flee for his life by swimming across the Ganga.
Humayun who had arrived at Agra assembled his army with the support of his brothers
Askari and Hindal to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter took place at Kanauj.
Battle of Kanauj (1540)
This battle was won by Sher Khan and Humayun’s army was completely routed, and he became
a prince without a kingdom.
Humayun’s Exile and return
After losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years. His own
brothers betrayed him. They were not interested in sharing their powers and authority
with him.
Humayun wanders through the Rajputana deserts and found asylum in Samarkand
(Babur’s land).
After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his weak successors ruled for ten years.
Humayun then went to Afghanistan with Persian troops. He succeeded in capturing
Kandahar and Kabul. But his brother Kamran did not allow him to hold them in peace.
The struggle between the brothers intensified, and yet in the end Kamran had to seek a
compromise with Humayun.
Meanwhile the Sur empire had fragmented, and so Humayun’s invasion became easy.
The Afghan forces in Punjab, on the approach of Mughals, began to flee. Humayun
became the Emperor once again.
He died very soon after regaining Delhi when he slipped down the stairs of the library in
the fort at Delhi.
Sur Dynasty
The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid.
He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for
his bravery.
He is also known as Sher Khan because he killed a tiger (Sher in Hindi).
From the time Humayun abandoned the throne in the Battle of Kanauj to his regaining
of power in 1555, Delhi was ruled by Sher Shah of the Sur Dynasty.
He emerged as the chief of Afghans in India, through his ability and efficiency.
Military conquest
His military capability and diplomacy made him victorious over Humayun and many
other Rajput rulers.
Malwa fell without a fight.
Rana Uday Singh of Mewar surrendered without resistance.
Sher Shah’s next venture to capture Kalinjar failed as a gunshot caused his death in
1545.
Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Islam Shah who ruled till 1553.
Sher Shah’s Administration
He organised a brilliant administrative system.
The central government consisted of several departments.
The king was assisted by four important ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
3. Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister.
4. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars.
Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge
of the administration in each sarkar.
Each sarkar was divided into several Parganas.
Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns
(accountants) were in charge of the administration of each Pargana.
There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
Sher Shah’s Reforms
As one familiar with the problem of provincial insubordination, he thought that the real
solution to the problem would be to set up a strong administrative system.
Sher shah, made his government highly centralised.
The local administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate was followed with certain
changes.
The village headmen who were made responsible for the goods stolen within the area
under their control became vigilant.
When the peasant is ruined, Sher Shah believed, the king is ruined.
Sher Shah took great care that the movements of the army did not damage crops.
He followed a flexible revenue system.
Land was surveyed and revenue settled according to the fertility of the soil.
In some areas, the jagirdari and zamindari systems were allowed to continue. Yet in
other places he arranged to collect only a portion of the gross produce as tax.
Sher Shah showed the same concern to traders like peasants.
To encourage trade, he simplified trade imposts, collecting taxes only at the point of
entry and the point of sale.
The standardization of the metal content of gold, silver and copper coins also facilitated
trade.
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till
1835. His currency system continued through the entire Mughal period and became the
basis of the coinage under the British.
Sher Shah maintained a robust highway system by repairing old roads and laying down
new roads for enhancement of trade and commerce.
Apart from repairing the Grand Trunk road from the Indus in the west to Sonargaon in
Bengal, he also built a road connecting Gujarat’s seaports with Agra and Jodhpur. A road
was laid connecting Lahore with Multan.
The highways were endowed with a large network of sarais, rest houses, where the
traders were provided with food and accommodation, ensuring brisk commerce.
Sher Shah practiced charity on a large scale. He gave stipends from the treasury to
destitute people.
He started building a new walled city in Delhi, which later came to be known as Purana
Qila (Old Fort). He built his own mausoleum in Sasaram.
Jalaluddin Akbar
During Humayun’s wanderings in the Rajputana desert, his wife gave birth to a son,
Jalaluddin, known as Akbar, in 1542.
Akbar was crowned at the age of fourteen.
At the time of Akbar’s ascension, the Afghans and Rajputs were still powerful and posed
a great challenge. Yet he had a guardian and protector in Bairam Khan.
Second battle of Panipat
It was held between Hemu and Akbar.
Hemu, the Hindu general and commander-in-chief of Afghan king Adil Shah, successor of
Sher Shah.
Hemu first took Gwalior, expelling the Mughal governor.
Then he marched on Agra and captured it without any resistance.
Hemu’s generosity helped him to overcome potential enemies when he took Delhi.
In November 1556 Akbar marched towards Delhi to meet the forces of Hemu in the
Second Battle of Panipat.
An arrow struck the eye of Hemu when the battle was likely to end in his favour.
The leaderless Afghan army became demoralised, and the Mughal forces emerged
victorious.
Hemu was captured and executed.
This victory made Akbar the sovereign of Agra and Delhi
The Mughal Empire was reestablished.
Akbar and Bairam Khan
As a conqueror, Akbar triumphed all over North India.
The first four years of Akbar’s rule saw the expansion of the Mughal empire from Kabul
to Jaunpur, including Gwalior and Ajmer, under his regent Bairam Khan.
Soon Bairam Khan began to behave haughtily towards his fellow nobles.
Akbar, enraged by his behaviour issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan. This led to
Bairam Khan’s revolt which was ably dealt with by Akbar.
Bairam Khan, finally agreeing to submit himself to Akbar, proceeded to Mecca. But on
his way, he was murdered by an Afghan.
The family of Bairam khan was brought to Delhi.
Bairam khan’s son Abdur Rahim became one of the luminaries of Akbar’s court with the
title Khan-e-Khanan.
Military conquests
Akbar laid the foundation for a great empire through his vast conquests.
In 1562, Malwa was conquered from Baz Bahadur, later he was made a mansabdar in
Akbar’s court.
In 1564, the Gondwana region of Central India was annexed after a fierce battle with
Rani Durgavati and her son Vir Narayan.
In 1568, the ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai Singh, was defeated after a siege of six months
and captured Chittoor fort.
Rana Udai Singh retreated to the hills. Yet his generals Jaimal and Patta carried on
their fight. Finally, the generals, along with 30,000 Rajputs were killed.
Out of admiration for the gallant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar honoured them by erecting
statues to their memory outside the chief gate of Agra fort.
In 1569, Rajput state Ranthambhor was captured.
Following this Rajput states like, Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer are
surrendered.
After subordinating the regions of central India, Akbar turned his attention to Gujarat, a
wealthy province renowned for its maritime commerce.
In 1573, Akbar conquered Gujarat from Muzaffar Shah. Gujarat became a launchpad for
the annexation of Deccan.
In 1576, Bihar and Bengal were annexed to the Mughal empire after defeating Daud
Khan.
In 1576, he won over Uday Singh’s son Rana Pratap at the Battle of Haldighati. Though
defeated, Rana Pratap escaped on his horse, Chetak and continued his fight, leading a
life in the jungle.
Akbar defeated Mirza Hakim of Kabul with the help of Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan
Das.
His conquest of Kashmir (1586) and Sindh (1591) consolidated the empire in the
northwest.
After achieving the political integration of North India, Akbar turned his attention to the
Deccan.
In 1591, Akbar’s forces had occupied the Khandesh region.
In 1596 Berar was acquired from Chand Bibi, who, as the regent of her nephew
Muzaffar Shah, the Nizam Shahi ruler of Ahmednagar, valiantly defended Ahmednagar
against the Mughal forces of Akbar.
By 1600 parts of Ahmed Nagar had fallen into the hands of Mughal forces.
Akbar fell sick in September 1604 and died on 27 October 1605.
Relationship with Rajput’s
Akbar took earnest efforts to win the goodwill of the Hindus.
He abolished the jizya (poll tax) on non-Muslims and the tax on Hindu pilgrims.
The practice of sati by Hindu widows was also abolished.
The practice of making slaves of war prisoners was also discontinued.
His conciliatory Rajput policy included matrimonial alliances with Rajput princely
families and according high positions to the Rajput nobles in the Mughal court.
Akbar had married Harkha Bhai also referred as Jodha, the daughter of Raja Bhar Mal
(also known as Bihari Mal) of Amber.
He also married the Rajput princesses of Bikaner and Jaisalmer.
Raja Man Singh, son of Bhagwan Das, became the trusted general of Akbar.
Even the Rajputs who chose not to have any matrimonial alliances were bestowed great
honours in Akbar’s court.
Akbar’s Rajput policy secured the services of great warriors and administrators for the
empire.
Raja Todar Mal, an expert in revenue affairs, rose to the position of Diwan.
Birbal was a favourite companion of Akbar.
Mewar and Marwar were the two Rajput kingdoms that defied the Mughal Empire.
After the death of Rana Udai Singh of Mewar, his son Rana Pratap Singh refused to
acknowledge Akbar’s suzerainty and continued to fight the Mughals till his death in
1597.
The Battle of Haldighati in 1576 was the last pitched battle between the Mughal forces
and Rana Pratap Singh.
In Marwar (Jodhpur), the ruler Chandra Sen, son of Maldev Rathore, resisted the
Mughals till his death in 1581, though his brothers fought on the side of the Mughals.
Akbar’s capital was at Agra in the beginning.
Later he built a new capital city at Fatehpur Sikri.
Though a deserted city now, it still stands with its beautiful mosque and great Buland
Darwaza and many other buildings.
He built Buland Darwaza, or the Door of victory in 1602 A.D to commemorate his victory
over Gujarat.
Mansabdari system
Akbar provided a systematic and centralised system of administration.
He introduced the Mansabdari system.
The nobles, civil and military officials, combined into a single service with each officer
receiving the title of Mansabdar.
Mansabdar rank was divided into Zat and Sawar.
The former determined the number of soldiers to each Mansabdar.
Each Mansabdar received a number of soldiers ranging from 10 to 10,000.
Promotions and demotions of Mansabs were made through additions or reductions of
the number of soldiers and horses provided to them.
During Akbar’s early years, the nobles were drawn exclusively from Central Asians or
Persians.
But after the introduction of the Mansabdari system, the nobility encompassed Rajputs
and Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims).
The salary of a Mansabdar was fixed in cash but was paid by assigning him a jagir (an
estate from which he could collect money in lieu of his salary), jagirs were subjected to
regular transfers.
The rank of Mansabdar was not hereditary, and immediately after the death of a
Mansabdar, the jagir was resumed by the state.
Religious policy
Akbar began his life as an orthodox Muslim.But adopted an accommodative approach
under the influence of Sufism.
Akbar was interested to learn about the doctrines of all religions and propagated a
philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not like Akbar’s inter-religious interests,
accused him of forsaking Islam.
Akbar had established an Ibadat Khana (1575), a hall of worship in which initially Muslim
clerics gathered to discuss spiritual issues.
The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is
Tauhid-i-Ilahi, namely Din Ilahi.
Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.
He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek,
etc., into Persian.
The Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the Bible and the Quran were
translated into Persian.
Jahangir (1605 – 1627)
Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with the title Nur-ud-din Jahangir.
He was Akbar’s son by a Rajput wife.
His ascension was challenged by his eldest son Prince Khusrau who staged a revolt with
the blessings of Sikh Guru Arjun Dev.
Prince Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded.
Guru Arjun Dev was executed.
Jahangir also tamed the rebel Afghan Usman Khan in Bengal.
Military campaign
Mewar, which had defied Akbar under Rana Udai Singh and his son Rana Pratap Singh,
was brought to terms after a military campaign led by by Jahangir son Prince Khurram
Rana Amar Singh, the grandson of Rana Udai Singh.
They concluded a treaty by which Rana Amar Singh could rule his kingdom after
accepting the suzerainty of Jahangir.
In 1608, Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan had declared independence under Malik Ambar.
Several attempts by Prince Khurram to conquer Ahmad Nagar ended in failure.
Prince Khurram had conquered the fort of Kangra after a siege of 14 months.
In 1595, Kandahar was conquered by Akbar from the Persians was retaken by the
Persian King Shah Abbas in 1622. Jahangir wanted to recapture it. But he could not
achieve it due to the rebellion of Prince Khurram.
The advent of British to Mughals court
The two Englishmen William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe, visited during Jahangir’s
reign.
They asked permission from the Emperor for establishing an English factory in India.
The First time, they failed in getting permission.
Later, Sir Thomas Roe was sent as ambassador by King James I, succeeded in securing
permission to establish a British factory at Surat.
Nur–Jahan
Jahangir was more interested in art, painting, gardens and flowers than in government.
His Persian wife Mehrunnisa, renamed as Nur-Jahan by Jahangir, became the real power
behind the throne.
The political intrigues that prevailed because of Nur-Jahan led Prince Khurram to rebel
against his father.
But due to the efforts of Mahabat Khan, a loyal general of Jahangir, the rebellion could
not be fruitful. Prince Khurram had to retreat to the Deccan.
The intrigues of Nur-Jahan also made Mahabat Khan to rise in a revolt which was
effectively handled by Nur-Jahan. Hence, Mahabat Khan also retreated to Deccan to join
Prince Khurram.
Immediately after the death of Jahangir, Nur-Jahan wanted to crown her son-in-law
Shahryar Khan.
But due to the efforts of Nur-Jahan’s brother and Prince Khurram’s father-in-law Asaf
Khan, Prince Khurram succeeded as the next Mughal emperor with the title Shah-Jahan.
Nur-Jahan, who ruled the empire for ten years, lost her power and influence after
Jahangir’s death in 1627.
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